Current Affairs for 21 November 2025

West Seti Hydropower Project

Why in the News ?

Nepal has extended the survey license deadline for the West Seti Hydropower Project being developed by India’s NHPC. It has also approved work for a direct agreement for another project by SJVN, aiming to facilitate Indian power companies in executing hydropower projects in the Himalayan nation.

About West Seti Hydropower Project

• It is a 750 MW hydroelectric storage project on the Seti River (a tributary of the Karnali River) in Nepal.
• Unlike typical run-of-river hydropower plants, West Seti is designed as a storage-based project with a large reservoir.
• Water can be stored during the monsoon season to generate steady electricity throughout the year, including dry months.
• The project is being developed by India’s National Hydro Power Corporation Ltd. (NHPC) under a Public-Private Partnership model.

Core Infrastructure Includes

• A 195-meter-high concrete-faced rockfill dam.
• A reservoir approximately 25 km long, submerging parts of the river valley and nearby forest areas.
• An underground power station and associated power transmission lines for electricity evacuation.
• Annual Energy Generation: ~3,636 GWh.
• Ownership and development follow a PPP model led by NHPC.

Power Purchase Agreement (PPA)

• Nepal will receive 21.9% free electricity from the project.
• The remaining generated electricity will be exported to India via Power Trade Corporation India Ltd.

Significance of the Project

• Enhances India–Nepal hydropower cooperation.
• Helps Nepal strengthen its energy security and boost electricity exports.
• Supports year-round grid stability due to storage capability.
• Creates local employment and infrastructural development in far-western Nepal.

Challenges

• Resettlement and rehabilitation issues due to the large reservoir area.
• Environmental concerns related to valley inundation and forest submergence.
• Engineering complexities of constructing a high dam in a seismically sensitive Himalayan region.
• Involvement of multiple agencies requiring regulatory coordination.

Impact

• Boost to Nepal’s hydropower production capacity.
• Strengthened India–Nepal ties in the energy sector.
• Long-term revenue generation for Nepal through power exports.
• Potential ecological and social impacts on communities living in the reservoir region.

Colombo Security Conclave (csc)

Why in the News ?

The 7th National Security Adviser (NSA)–level meeting of the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC) was recently held in New Delhi, with the participation of NSAs and Deputy NSAs from member states. During the meeting, Seychelles was formally admitted as the sixth full member of the CSC.

About Colombo Security Conclave (CSC)

• CSC is a regional security grouping in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• It aims to strengthen cooperation among maritime neighbours to address common security challenges.
• Current members: India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, Bangladesh, Seychelles.
• It brings together National Security Advisors for coordinated action on regional security.

Origin & Evolution

• Began as a Trilateral Maritime Security Cooperation mechanism between India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka in 2011.
• Meetings paused after 2014 due to regional political tensions.
• Revived in 2020 and re-named the Colombo Security Conclave.
• Expansion:
  • Mauritius joined in 2022.
  • Bangladesh joined in 2024.
  • Seychelles became the sixth member in 2025.
• CSC now has a Permanent Secretariat in Colombo.

Pillars of Cooperation

The Conclave focuses on five security pillars:

1. Maritime Safety & Security
2. Counter-Terrorism & Counter-Radicalisation
3. Trafficking & Transnational Organised Crime
4. Cybersecurity & Critical Infrastructure Protection
5. Humanitarian Assistance & Disaster Relief (HADR)

Significance of CSC

• Strengthens security coordination in the Indian Ocean Region.
• Enhances maritime domain awareness and joint operational capability.
• Deepens India's role as a net security provider in the region.
• Important for tackling terrorism, trafficking, cyber threats, and maritime crimes.
• Allows member nations to share intelligence, conduct joint training, and improve interoperability.

Tribunal Reforms Act Declared Illegal

Context

On November 19, 2025, the Supreme Court declared several key sections of the Tribunal Reforms Act, 2021, unconstitutional. The Court stated that the Act gives the Central Government excessive control over the appointment, functioning, and service conditions of tribunals, which is against the independence of the judiciary. The Court directed the Central Government to establish the National Tribunals Commission (NTC) within four months.

Recent Issues

• The Supreme Court found that the Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021, reinstated the same provisions that were in the 2021 Ordinance that the Court had already struck down.
• This resulted in Parliament overriding the Court's orders and imposing legislative overreach. Several provisions give excessive power to the executive, affecting the independence of tribunals.

The Tribunals Reform Act 2021

• This law was passed in 2021, with the aim of:
  • Merging various tribunals
  • Changing the appointment process for members
  • Imposing new rules on service conditions
• However, many of its provisions were similar to an ordinance previously struck down by the Supreme Court.

The Central Ordinance and Its Replication

• In 2021, the Central Government issued the Tribunals Reform Ordinance. The Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in July 2021.
• However, Parliament subsequently reintroduced almost the same provisions into the Act with minor changes. The Supreme Court described this as "old wine in a new bottle."

The Supreme Court's Order: Key Points

• Parliament cannot ignore court orders.
• The independence of tribunals is a constitutional requirement.
• The executive cannot be given excessive control over tribunal appointments and service conditions.
• The establishment of the National Tribunal Commission is mandatory within four months.

Provisions struck down by the Supreme Court

1. Tenure
   • The Act fixed a four-year term for tribunal members.
   • The Supreme Court had already stated that this was too short and undermined independence.
   • Therefore, it was declared unconstitutional and struck down.
2. Minimum Age Limit of 50 Years
   • The Act set a minimum age of 50 years for members.
   • The Court stated that this excluded qualified, experienced, but young experts.
   • This age limit was impractical and unconstitutional, and was therefore struck down.
3. Excessive Control of the Central Government
   • The Central Government had control over salaries, allowances, tenure, and the appointment process.
   • The Court considered this to be against judicial independence.
4. Closure of Nine Tribunals
   • Several specialized tribunals were abolished and their cases transferred to the High Courts.
   • This increased the burden on the High Courts and weakened the system of specialized justice.
   • This provision was also declared unconstitutional.

Key Points

• The Center cannot arbitrarily decide on the structure, appointments, and salaries of tribunals.
• The Court stated that its previous order was not merely advisory, but a binding directive.
• The Court clarified that “the Constitution is what the Supreme Court says.”
• The executive’s powers are limited, and judicial independence is paramount.

Significance

• This decision strengthens the independence of judicial institutions in India.
• Transparency and fairness will be ensured in the appointments and service conditions of tribunals.
• The National Tribunals Commission will create a unified, independent monitoring mechanism.
• The decision sends a message to prevent the executive from ignoring judicial directives.

Challenges

• Establishing the NTC within four months may be administratively difficult.
• Maintaining coordination between the central government and the judiciary will be challenging.
• The vacancies, infrastructure, and facilities in tribunals are already inadequate.
• The increased burden on high courts due to the abolished tribunals will not be immediately alleviated.
• Ensuring transparency and timeliness in the appointment process will be difficult.

Way Forward

• The NTC should be established as soon as possible.
• Expertise, diversity, and independence should be prioritized in the appointment process.
• The infrastructure of high courts and tribunals should be strengthened.
• The government should formulate policies based on the Supreme Court's guidelines.
• Legislative reforms should aim to enhance the independence, efficiency, and accountability of the judiciary.

The Growing Threat of Digital Tradecraft in Terrorism

Context

The November 10 car bombing near Delhi's Red Fort clearly demonstrates that terrorists are now dangerously active not only on the ground but also in the digital world. Using encrypted apps, private servers, and secret online methods, terrorists are evading surveillance by agencies.

Digital Tradecraft: A New Form of Terrorism

• Terrorists now plan using encrypted messaging apps, private servers, and secret digital methods.
• Many modules even use VPNs and foreign proxies to access banned apps.
• Modern versions of old espionage methods like "dead-drop email" are being used digitally.
• Educated individuals with technical knowledge, such as doctors and professionals, are now becoming part of these networks.

Key Features

• Encrypted Communication: Use apps and services like Threema, Session, Discord, and ProtonMail, which require neither a phone number nor an email address.
• Private Servers: Terrorists create their own private servers and communicate within a closed network.
• Dead-Drop Technique: Instead of sending emails, they save drafts, which other members read and then delete.
• Minimal Digital Footprint: Keeping phones switched off, limiting online activity, and using VPNs.
• Physical Reiki + Digital Planning: A hybrid model of ground-based Reiki and online covert planning.

Differences from Traditional Ground-Based Threats

• Previously, terrorists used phone calls, meetings, and open networks. Now, communications are fully encrypted, decentralized, and difficult to trace.
• Physical evidence is limited, and sometimes even digital evidence is automatically erased. Traditional surveillance, such as phone tapping and email intercepts, has become virtually ineffective.
• Secret servers and draft emails are beyond the reach of traditional security agencies.

Key Challenges

• Encrypted apps and private servers are extremely difficult to track.
• Digital evidence is quickly erased, making forensic investigations difficult.
• Even banned apps can be easily accessed through a VPN.
• Rise of educated and technologically capable terrorist modules
• Increasing role of foreign networks and transnational connections
• Early detection of radicalization activities hidden within institutions is difficult

Way forward

• Advanced digital forensic teams: Teams specialized in encrypted platforms, private servers, and memory forensics
• Regulations on private servers: Clear legal and oversight framework for such digital systems
• Amendments to laws: Incorporate threats such as digital dead-drops and encrypted communications into the law
• Institutional awareness: Radicalization detection programs in universities and professional institutions
• International cooperation: Coordination with foreign agencies, tech companies, and the countries of origin of apps
• Public awareness: Increasing the ability to understand and report on the digital nature of modern terrorism

TRUMP’S DRAFT UKRAINE PEACE PLAN: KEY FEATURES & IMPLICATIONS

Why in the News ? 

Former US President Donald Trump is reportedly considering a 28-point peace plan to end the Russia–Ukraine war. The draft, seen by Axios, AFP, and AP, proposes territorial concessions to Russia, Ukraine’s exclusion from NATO, and Russia’s return to the G8.

Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said he would discuss the plan with Trump, emphasizing that any deal must ensure a “dignified peace” respecting Ukraine’s sovereignty. Several Ukrainian officials, however, denounced the proposal as “absurd” and a “capitulation.”

Background

• The plan was reportedly drafted jointly by Russian and US officials, including Kirill Dmitriev, head of Russia’s sovereign wealth fund, and US special envoy Steve Witkoff.
• The White House has stated that President Trump supports the proposal.
• US officials, including Secretary of State Marco Rubio, have been “quietly” working on it for about a month.

Key Features of the 28-Point Plan

1. Territorial Adjustments

a. Recognition of Russian Control

• Crimea, Luhansk, and Donetsk would be recognized as de facto Russian territories by both the US and Ukraine.
• Ukraine currently controls parts of Luhansk and Donetsk, which constitute the Donbas industrial region.

b. Demilitarized Zones

• Areas of Donetsk from which Ukraine has withdrawn would become demilitarized zones where Russian forces will not enter.

c. Frozen Conflict Lines

• Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions would be “frozen along the line of contact,” reflecting Russia’s existing occupation lines.

d. Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Plant

• The Russian-occupied plant would be placed under IAEA supervision, with electricity shared between Ukraine and Russia.

2. Security Provisions

a. Limits on Ukraine’s Military

• Ukraine’s armed forces would be capped at 600,000 personnel, significantly reduced from current wartime levels.

b. NATO Conditions

• Ukraine would be:
  • Barred from joining NATO
  • Subject to a ban on NATO troop presence on its territory

This aligns with longstanding Russian demands and contradicts Kyiv’s stated security goals.

c. Security Guarantees

• Ukraine would receive unspecified “reliable security guarantees.”
• European jets would be stationed in Poland, not Ukraine.

3. Diplomatic and Economic Measures

a. Russia’s Reintegration

• Russia would be:
  • Readmitted into the G8
  • Reintegrated into the global economy
  • Freed from many sanctions

b. Conditional Sanctions

• If Russia invades Ukraine again:
  • All sanctions would snap back automatically
  • Western powers would launch a “decisive coordinated military response”

c. Frozen Assets and Reconstruction

• $100 billion in frozen Russian assets would be used for rebuilding Ukraine.
• Additional funds would be invested in a US–Russia joint investment fund aimed at strengthening cooperation and reducing chances of renewed conflict.

d. Domestic Reforms and Elections

• Ukraine would hold national elections within 100 days of agreement.
• Both nations would implement educational programs promoting tolerance, cultural understanding, and anti-racism.

Reactions to the Plan

1. Ukraine

• Zelenskyy: open to discussion, but insists on sovereignty and independence.
• Ukrainian officials: strongly oppose the plan, calling it:
  • “Absurd”
  • “Capitulation”
  • A threat to Ukraine’s continued existence

2. Europe

• European allies are expected to resist, arguing they must have a role in negotiations given NATO’s eastern flank security concerns.

3. Russia

• The plan aligns heavily with Russia’s maximalist demands, making Moscow likely receptive.

Possible Implications

For Ukraine

• Loss of territory
• Security vulnerability due to NATO exclusion
• Heavy political divisions within the country

For Russia

• Diplomatic and economic rehabilitation
• Formalization of gains in Crimea and Donbas
• Increased leverage over future regional order

For Europe

• Reduced influence in negotiations
• Security concerns on NATO’s eastern front
• Precedent of territorial concessions under military pressure

For Global Order

• Could normalize “peace through concession” models
• Reshapes US–Russia relations
• Disrupts existing international sanctions architecture

HIGH PENDENCY & STAFFING GAPS IN JUVENILE JUSTICE BOARDS

Why in the News ?

A first-of-its-kind study by the India Justice Report (IJR) reveals that over 55% of cases before India’s Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs) were pending as of October 31, 2023, exposing deep gaps in staffing, infrastructure, data systems, and inter-agency coordination.

The findings are based on 250+ RTI replies from 21 States, showing that JJBs have disposed of less than half of the 1,00,904 cases filed before them.

Status of Juvenile Justice Boards in India

• 92% of India’s 765 districts have constituted Juvenile Justice Boards.
• Pendency remains critically high, with wide inter-state variation:
  • Odisha – 83% pendency
  • Karnataka – 35% pendency
  • National Average – 55%
• 24% of JJBs are not fully constituted.
• 30% lack an attached legal services clinic, essential for child-centric justice.

Findings from the India Justice Report

1. High Pendency & Workload

• Each JJB handled an average of 154 pending cases annually.
• Highlights mismatch between caseload vs. institutional capacity.

2. Staffing & Infrastructure Gaps

• Major vacancies in positions of social workers & support staff.
• Insufficient funds for training and capacity building.
• Lack of child-friendly infrastructure in several districts.

3. Poor Data Systems & Transparency

• No national data repository exists—unlike NJDG (National Judicial Data Grid).
• RTI findings:
  • 11% replies rejected outright
  • 24% received no response
  • Only 36% provided complete information

4. High Number of Juveniles Apprehended

• 40,036 juveniles apprehended in 31,365 cases.
• Over 75% were in the 16–18 years category—showing rise in older adolescents entering the justice system.

Structural Gaps in the Juvenile Justice Architecture

1. Weak Inter-Agency Coordination

The four nodal agencies often operate in silos:

• Police
• Department of Women & Child Development
• State Child Protection Society (SCPS)
• State Legal Services Authority (SLSA)

500+ RTI applications across 28 States & 2 UTs show fragmented, inconsistent data.

2. Inadequate Legal Support

• 30% of JJBs lack legal aid clinics.
• Many children face the system without proper defence, violating child-centric principles of JJ Act, 2015.

3. Vacancies in Child Care Institutions

• Persistent shortage of counselors, probation officers, and rehabilitation staff.
• Hampers reintegration & long-term rehabilitation.

Way Forward

Experts recommend:

• Creation of a National Juvenile Justice Data Grid
• Filling vacancies across JJBs and Child Care Institutions
• Ensuring universal legal aid availability in all districts
• Strengthening inter-agency data sharing mechanisms
• Increasing funding for child protection & training
• Regular monitoring & public reporting of JJB performance

These reforms are vital for ensuring fair, timely, and child-friendly justice for children in conflict with the law.

IMMIGRANTS EXPULSION ACT 1950 – RECENT INVOCATION IN ASSAM

Why in the News?

• Assam has invoked the Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act, 1950 for the first time in decades after the state cabinet approved its use in 2024–25.
• The Sonitpur district administration issued expulsion orders to five people—declared foreigners by a tribunal in 2024—directing them to leave India within 24 hours.
• However, the individuals remain untraceable, with police calling them absconding and locals claiming they left the region over ten years ago.

About the Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act, 1950

• Enacted on March 1, 1950, amid rising concerns over large-scale migration from East Pakistan after Partition.
• Brought in after Assam demanded a legal framework to manage immigration-related demographic pressures.
• Earlier draft name: Undesirable Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act—reflecting its intended purpose.
• Citizenship being a Union subject, the Centre drafted the Act but delegated operational powers to Assam.
• Importantly, it excluded refugees fleeing “civil disturbances” in Pakistan, acknowledging humanitarian concerns during Partition.

Powers Granted Under the Act

The Act authorises the Central Government to direct any person to leave Assam or India if they:

1. were ordinarily residents outside India,
2. entered Assam before or after 1950, and
3. whose presence is considered detrimental to:
   • the general public of India, or
   • any Scheduled Tribe in Assam.

Additional powers:

• The Centre may specify time, manner, and route for exit.
• Union or Assam government officers may enforce expulsion orders.

Application and Early Challenges

Although enacted with urgency, the Act saw very limited implementation, mainly due to the volatile conditions of early 1950.

Communal Tension & Mass Exodus

• While the Act was being finalised, communal riots in Lower Assam pushed 40,000 to 1 lakh Muslims to flee to East Pakistan.
• Many originally belonged to Assam’s indigenous Bengali Muslim communities, making identification of “immigrants” nearly impossible.
• A notable incident: an elderly Assamese Muslim, a long-time resident, was served an expulsion order—creating national controversy and drawing PM Jawaharlal Nehru’s anger.

Nehru–Liaquat Pact and Suspension of the Act

• The events coincided with the Nehru–Liaquat Pact (April 1950), which focused on minority protection in India and Pakistan.
• Pakistan’s PM Liaquat Ali Khan expressed concern over Assam’s expulsion orders.
• On April 10, 1950, Nehru wrote to Assam CM Gopinath Bordoloi, directing an immediate halt of all actions under the Act.
• Nehru emphasised restoring peace and preventing communal escalation.

Result: Historical records indicate that only a few hundred people were affected before the Act’s use was completely suspended.

Why the 1950 Act is Being Revived in 2025

• Foreigners Tribunals in Assam continue to adjudicate citizenship disputes under separate laws (Foreigners Act, NRC).
• The revival of the 1950 Act provides the state with an additional mechanism to expel individuals already declared foreigners.
• This is the first major invocation of the Act since its suspension in 1950.

Impact & Governance Implications

• Raises questions about federal powers, citizenship adjudication, and state implementation of central Acts.
  • Could influence future immigration policy, border management, and foreigners tribunal enforcement.
• May trigger fresh debates on human rights, due process, and historical sensitivities tied to Partition-era laws.

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) and india

What is a GLOF ?

A Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) occurs when a natural dam—

• Moraine (debris dam)
• Ice dam
• Rock/glacial dam

suddenly fails or is overtopped, releasing large volumes of water from a glacial lake at high speed. This sudden, destructive flood can cause significant damage downstream.

Formation Mechanism of GLOF

1. Glacial retreat due to warming → water accumulates at the glacier front forming a glacial lake.
2. These lakes are often held back by weak moraine dams.
3. Dam failure can occur due to:
   • Sudden landslides / ice avalanches / rockfalls into the lake
   • Heavy rainfall or cloudbursts
   • Earthquakes
   • Glacier calving / ice avalanche
   • Melting of ice dam due to rising temperature

Key Features of GLOF

• Extremely high-velocity floods
• Short warning times
• Brings water, rocks, and debris downstream
• Causes major destruction in deep valleys
• Severely impacts bridges, roads, and hydropower projects

Why are GLOFs increasing? (Global Drivers)

• Accelerated glacial melting
• Expansion of glacial lakes due to glacier retreat
• Increased extreme rainfall events in high mountain regions
• Instability of mountain slopes → more landslides

GLOFs in India

1. Where do GLOFs occur in India?

High-risk areas with many glacial lakes:

• Ladakh
• Himachal Pradesh
• Uttarakhand
• Sikkim
• Arunachal Pradesh

ISRO reports: India has 2400+ glacial lakes, many of which are classified as high-risk.

2. Major GLOF Events in India

3. Causes of GLOFs in India

• Climate change → rapid glacial melting
• Rapid expansion of glacial lakes
• Landslides, ice avalanches, earthquakes
• Heavy rainfall / cloudburst
• Human-induced pressure: roads, tunnels, hydropower construction
• Unstable mountainous terrain

4. Impacts of GLOFs in India

• Severe damage to hydropower projects (esp. river valleys)
• Destruction of bridges, roads, communication networks
• Displacement of villages/towns
• Loss of agricultural land
• Increased river sedimentation → long-term impacts
• Affects tourism and military infrastructure (Ladakh / Arunachal Pradesh)

GLOF Analysis

1. Climate Change and GLOFs

• Himalayas are among the fastest melting glacier regions globally
• IPCC: By 2100, Himalayan glaciers may shrink by 30–60%
• Larger glacial lakes → more frequent and intense GLOF events

2. Policy & Institutional Efforts in India

1. NDMA Guidelines on GLOF (2013)
   • Identify high-risk lakes
   • Early warning systems
   • Monitoring & GIS mapping
   • Engineering solutions – controlled drainage
   • Community-based disaster management
2. ISRO Monitoring
   • Satellite-based Glacial Lake Atlas
   • Special monitoring of high-risk lakes
   • Multi-temporal imaging
3. State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA)
   • Local-level mapping
   • Awareness campaigns & mock drills
4. International Cooperation
   • ICIMOD (Hindu Kush–Himalayan region)
   • UNEP
   • World Glacier Monitoring Service

GLOF Management: Solutions & Strategies

1. Engineering Measures

• Controlled drainage of lakes
• Strengthening moraine dams
• Diversion channels
• Sub-surface drainage pipes
• Retaining walls

2. Technical Measures

• Real-time Early Warning Systems
• AI-based lake expansion forecasting
• Drone surveys
• InSAR & LiDAR techniques

3. Policy & Administrative Measures

• Restrict indiscriminate construction in sensitive areas
• Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
• Re-evaluate hydropower projects
• River-basin-level disaster planning

4. Community-Level Measures

• Local warning systems
• Identifying evacuation routes
• Village-level disaster management training
• School-level awareness programs