Current Affairs for 02 December 2025

Charaideo Moidams of the Ahom Empire in the UNESCO World Heritage List

Recently, the Charaideo Moidams of Assam have been officially included in the UNESCO World Heritage List (Cultural Category). This decision was taken during the 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) held in New Delhi. It is the first cultural site from Northeast India to receive the World Heritage tag. With this, India now has a total of 44 World Heritage Sites.

What are Charaideo Moidams ?

• Moidam means “the house of the soul”.
• These are the royal burial mounds of the Tai-Ahom dynasty (13th–19th century).
• They are often compared to the Egyptian Pyramids due to their massive earthen mounds and complex funerary architecture.

Location

• Eastern Assam, at the foothills of the Patkai mountain range, in the Charaideo district.

Architectural Features

Each Moidam is an elaborate funerary complex consisting of:

1. A hemispherical earthen mound (Ga-Moidam)
2. A temple-like structure on the top called Chaow-Chali
3. An octagonal boundary wall (Gorh) – symbolizing the Tai cosmology
4. A brick-stone vaulted chamber
5. The royal burial chamber inside the vault (Gorbhwa)
6. Nearby features, such as:
   • Banyan trees
   • Trees providing bark for making coffins
   • Water tanks/ponds

Cultural and Religious Importance

Belief in Rebirth

Along with the deceased Ahom kings, items considered necessary for the afterlife were buried, including:

• Food
• Weapons
• Horses/elephants
• Servants (in some early cases)

Burial Practice

• Before the 17th century: Bodies were preserved using gelatin/herbal substances and then buried.
• After the 17th century: Cremation became common, and the ashes were interred in the Moidams.

This reflects the adoption of local Indian religious traditions by the Tai-Ahoms.

Cultural Continuity

Ancestor-worship rituals such as Mi-Dam-Mi-Phi and Tarpan continue even today—an unbroken tradition of over 600 years.

Administration and Security

• In the Ahom period, special officers known as Moidam Phukan were appointed to protect the burial sites.
• The group of guardians was called Moidamiya.

Discovery and Historical Sources

• The first scientific account was published in 1848 by Sergeant C. Clayton in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
• The Buranjis—the official historical chronicles of the Ahom state—are the most authentic sources of information about the Moidams.

UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC)

Establishment

• Created in 1972 during UNESCO’s 17th Session
• Based on the World Heritage Convention

Objectives – “5 Cs”

1. Credibility
2. Conservation
3. Capacity Building
4. Communication
5. Communities (local participation)

Roles

• Makes the final decision on inscription of sites in the World Heritage List
• Allocates funds from the World Heritage Fund
• Monitors the conservation status of sites

Membership

• 21 elected representatives from State Parties
• Elected for six-year terms
• India is a member for 2021–2025

Advisory Bodies

• ICCROM – conservation of cultural heritage
• ICOMOS – architectural/landscape heritage (recommended Charaideo Moidams)

India’s Major Initiatives During WHC 46th Session

1. India hosted the WHC session for the first time
   • Venue: New Delhi
2. India donated USD 1 million to the UNESCO World Heritage Centre
   • Purpose: Support cultural and natural heritage conservation in the Global South
3. India–USA Cultural Property Agreement (CPA)
   • To curb illegal trafficking and repatriate stolen antiquities
   • Aligned with the UNESCO 1970 Convention

Ahom Empire (1228–1826)

Establishment

• Founder: Sukapha, a Shan prince of Mong Mao
• Origin: Yunnan region of China
• Entered Assam in 1228, crossing the Patkai hills

Administration

• Monarchy; the king was called Swargadeo
• But real authority often rested with the Patra Mantris (Council of Ministers)
• In three periods during the 14th century, there was no king due to lack of suitable heirs

Culture

• Adopted Shaivism and Shakti traditions
• Rebuilt/renovated the Kamakhya Temple
• Deeply assimilated with local Assamese culture

Decline

• Weakened by repeated Burmese invasions
• Treaty of Yandaboo (1826) handed control to the British East India Company
• End of Ahom rule

India Observes World AIDS Day 2025: Renewed Commitment to Ending HIV

Why in the News ?

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare commemorated World AIDS Day 2025 under the theme “Overcoming disruption, transforming the AIDS response,” highlighting India’s progress in HIV prevention, treatment, and epidemic control.

The World Health Organization (WHO) first marked World AIDS Day on 1 December 1998 to recognize the vital role of civil society in shaping a global response to HIV/AIDS.

What is HIV/AIDS ?

About HIV

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) attacks and weakens the immune system, particularly the CD4 (T-helper) cells, increasing vulnerability to infections and cancers.
• Transmission occurs through infected bodily fluids—blood, semen, vaginal fluids, breast milk—mainly via unprotected sex, shared needles, or unsterilized equipment.
• HIV does not spread through casual contact (touching, hugging, sharing utensils).

Symptoms

• Early signs: Fever, rash, fatigue.
• Advanced symptoms: Weight loss, chronic diarrhea, swollen lymph nodes.
• Severe HIV leads to opportunistic infections like TB, meningitis, and cancers such as lymphoma.

Treatment

• HIV has no cure, but lifelong Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) can suppress the virus, enabling individuals to lead healthy lives.

Global Response

• UN SDG 3.3 targets ending AIDS as a public health threat by 2030.

India’s National AIDS Control Programme (NACP)

About NACP

The National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) is India’s flagship initiative for HIV prevention, control, and management.
It is implemented by the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

AIDS Defined

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by severe immune damage and life-threatening infections.

Evolution of NACP

NACP I (1992–1999)

• Launched India’s first structured national response to reduce HIV transmission.

NACP II (1999–2006)

• Focused on prevention, awareness, and strengthening institutional capacity.

NACP III (2007–2012)

• Aimed to halt and reverse the epidemic.
• Established District AIDS Prevention and Control Units (DAPCUs).
• Expanded prevention and integrated service delivery.

NACP IV (2012–2017, extended to 2021)

• Targeted 50% reduction in new infections (from 2007 baseline).
• Key interventions:
  • HIV/AIDS (Prevention and Control) Act, 2017 prohibiting discrimination.
  • Mission Sampark to trace PLHIV lost to follow-up.
  • ‘Test and Treat’ policy & universal viral load monitoring.

NACP V (2021–2026)

• Central Sector Scheme with an outlay of ₹15,000+ crore.
• Aligned with SDG 3.3 to eliminate AIDS as a public health threat by 2030.

Achievements of NACP

• HIV prevalence decreased from 0.33% (2010) to 0.20% (2024) — well below the global average of 0.70%.
• New infections declined from 1.25 lakh (2010) to 64,500 (2024) → 49% reduction, better than the global 40% decline.
• India now accounts for only 5% of global new HIV infections (1.3 million in 2024).
• Under NACP-V:
  • HIV testing expanded from 4.13 crore (2020–21) to 6.62 crore (2024–25).
  • People on ART increased from 14.94 lakh to 18.60 lakh.

The Air Quality Crisis in India: An Analysis

Context

Every winter, Delhi and large parts of North India are shrouded in a thick layer of smog. Governments adopt quick measures such as cloud seeding, smog towers, odd-even rules, or water sprinkling, but air quality improves only temporarily. The real problem lies in India's air governance flaws, fragmented responsibilities, and short-term political incentives.

Why Pollution Management Fails in India

Over-reliance on Quick and Superficial Measures

• Measures such as cloud seeding, smog towers, odd-even rules, anti-smog guns, and festival bans are high-visibility measures.
• They are politically convenient, easily implemented, and fit within the budget.
• But these cannot replace long-term reforms such as clean fuels, waste management, industrial upgrades, or public transport improvements.

Fragmented Administrative Structure

Air quality management is fragmented across multiple institutions:

• Ministry of Environment
• Central Pollution Control Boards (CPCB/SPCBs)
• Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
• Delhi Pollution Control Committee
• MCD, NDMC, NHAI, PWD
• Departments of Agriculture, Transport, Industry, Energy, etc.

Results

• No single institution has full authority or accountability.
• Inconsistencies between states, conflicting orders from courts, central, and local governments.
• Policy enforcement is weak and uneven.

Two Major Traps Affecting Policy

1. Intellectual Trap
   • Policymaking is often influenced by large research institutions, think tanks, or expert groups.
   • These solutions are technically sound, but they ignore the actual capacity, budgets, public behavior, informal economy, and political constraints of Indian municipal bodies.
   • As a result, policies stagnate at the pilot stage or fail to be implemented.
2. The Western Trap
   • Models from developed countries are implemented in India without considering the local context.
   • Conditions there differ from India's—strong enforcement, stable finances, and high institutional trust.
   • India's dense neighborhoods, informal activities, less reliable transportation, and limited staffing challenge the successful implementation of these models.

Key Policy Concerns

• Uneven municipal capacity
• Economic dependence on agricultural stubble
• Unregulated urban development
• Diesel-based transportation
• Informal labor markets
• Limited resources and high population pressure
  • All these factors together prevent policies from being implemented on the ground.

The Way Forward

• A modern and clear clean air law
  • Clear definitions of which institution will have leadership, who will be accountable, and how decisions will be made are essential.
  • This law should strengthen collaborative institutions rather than creating a powerful regulator.
• Multi-year, stable funding
  • Air quality improvement is not a one-year project; it requires sustained investment.
  • Stable funding will increase staff, improve monitoring systems, and create long-term programs.
• Making law enforcement transparent and visible
  • Publicizing compliance data increases the credibility of regulations.
  • Consistency in punitive action is essential.
• A new professional category of “managers”
  • Experts who understand science, administration, and politics.
  • Their role is to translate scientific knowledge into practical policies.
  • This will reduce the “expert-local administration” gap.
• Policy design tailored to Indian conditions
  • Solutions should be based on what Indian agencies can actually implement.
  • Community acceptance, local budgets, social behavior, and city capacity should be taken into account.

Conclusion

India doesn't lack ideas, technologies, and expertise; what's lacking is alignment between expert recommendations and actual capacity, between global models and Indian soil, between political priorities and long-term commitment. Clean air is not just a weather issue, but a question of public health, productivity, and the basic functionality of cities. High-tech tools can provide temporary relief, but lasting solutions are only possible through governance reforms tailored to Indian conditions.

The Need for a Strict Law Against Ridicule of Persons with Disabilities

Context

Recently, the Supreme Court asked the Central Government whether a stringent law similar to the SC/ST Atrocities Act could be enacted against those who insult or ridicule persons with disabilities (PwDs). This comment was made during a hearing on a case involving derogatory comments made against persons with disabilities on social media.

Background

• The case relates to a petition filed by the SMA Cure Foundation. The petition protested against insensitive comments made by Samay Raina and some other social media influencers about persons with disabilities.
• SMA Cure Foundation is an organization that works for people affected by the rare disease Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA).

Supreme Court Suggestions

• Consider enacting a stricter law, similar to the SC/ST Atrocities Act, against ridicule, insult, or vilification of persons with disabilities.
• Strong legal provisions are needed to protect persons with disabilities from abuse on social media.
• While not punishing YouTube hosts and other influencers, the court directed them to:
  • Create at least two programs every month on the success stories of persons with disabilities.
  • Instructed them to spread positive messages in society by inviting persons with disabilities on the platform.
• The court called this their "social punishment."

Need for a Stronger PwD Law

• Online trolling, memes, and ridicule against persons with disabilities are on the rise.
• Current laws primarily prohibit discrimination; direct provisions on ridicule and trauma are very limited.
• More stringent penal provisions are necessary to increase social sensitivity and ensure respectful behavior.
• The rapid expansion of the digital space further increases the need for cybersecurity provisions.

Benefits

• Legal protection of the honor and dignity of persons with disabilities will be ensured.
• Abuse of any kind online and offline will be reduced.
• Stricter self-regulation will be encouraged on social media platforms.
• A positive and inclusive attitude towards persons with disabilities will develop in society.
• Awareness about rare diseases like SMA will increase, and more people will join treatment and support campaigns.

Challenges

• The potential for content to go viral quickly on social media.
• ​​Lack of monitoring and content moderation on platforms.
• Lack of sensitivity towards persons with disabilities in society.
• Even when laws exist, enforcement is often weak.
• Technical complexities in identifying and responding to online trolling.

Way Forward

• The central government should consider introducing strict and clear laws against the ridicule of persons with disabilities.
• A mandatory content monitoring policy should be developed for social media platforms.
• Sensitization programs should be conducted in schools, universities, and public institutions.
• A special helpline should be established for prompt reporting and action on cases of online abuse.
• A culture of respect should be fostered in society by promoting inspiring stories of persons with disabilities.

Bioremediation Gains Momentum in India’s Environmental Cleanup Efforts

Why in the News ?

India is facing a severe environmental crisis triggered by decades of unchecked industrial waste, pesticide accumulation, oil spills, untreated sewage, and heavy-metal pollution—making bioremediation an urgent national priority.

Understanding Bioremediation

• Bioremediation refers to the use of microorganisms, fungi, algae, or plants to break down hazardous pollutants into harmless end products.
• These pollutants include pesticides, oil, plastics, industrial contaminants, and toxic metals.
• Microbes metabolise pollutants as an energy source, converting them into water, carbon dioxide, or organic acids.
• Some organisms transform heavy metals into stable, non-leaching forms, reducing toxicity.
• Modern bioremediation integrates microbiology with biotechnology and synthetic biology, enabling:
  • Genetically modified microbes to degrade tough pollutants
  • Biosensing organisms that signal the presence of toxins through colour change or fluorescence

Types of Bioremediation Techniques

1. In Situ Bioremediation

• Treatment occurs directly at the contaminated site.
• Example: Oil-degrading bacteria used during marine oil spills.

2. Ex Situ Bioremediation

• Contaminated soil or water is removed, treated externally, and then restored.
• Allows controlled treatment for complex or mixed pollutants.

Urgent Need for Bioremediation in India

• Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation have severely polluted India’s ecosystems.
• Rivers such as the Ganga and Yamuna, agricultural soils, groundwater, and urban areas are heavily contaminated.
• Traditional clean-up technologies (chemical neutralisation, thermal treatment) are costly, energy-intensive, and often create secondary pollution.
• Bioremediation offers a low-cost, scalable, and eco-friendly solution for a country with:
  • Vast polluted land areas
  • High waste generation
  • Limited financial resources
• India’s diverse microbial populations, adapted to heat, salinity, and acidity, give it a scientific advantage in designing locally suited solutions.

India’s Current Progress in Bioremediation

Government Initiatives

• Department of Biotechnology (DBT) funds bioremediation missions under Clean Technology Programmes.
• CSIR–NEERI leads national bioremediation projects and provides site-specific solutions to states.

Research & Academic Innovations

• IIT researchers developed cotton-derived nanocomposites to clean oil spills.
• Indian scientists have identified microbial strains capable of degrading pesticides and industrial toxins.

Growing Start-up Ecosystem

• Emerging companies offer microbial formulations for wastewater treatment, soil restoration, and landfill remediation.

Global Trends in Bioremediation

• Japan integrates plant–microbe systems into urban waste management.
• European Union funds multinational collaborations for oil-spill restoration and mine-site rehabilitation.
• China widely uses engineered microbes to reclaim industrial wastelands under its soil pollution programme.

These international models show how bioremediation can be mainstreamed into national environmental policies.

Opportunities for India

Bioremediation can accelerate progress in:

• River rejuvenation missions (e.g., Namami Gange)
• Sewage and wastewater treatment
• Industrial clean-up and legacy waste remediation
• Land reclamation and eco-restoration

It can also generate employment in:

• Biotechnology research
• Environmental monitoring
• Waste management enterprises
• Local sustainability start-ups

Risks and Regulatory Challenges

• Deployment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) poses ecological risks if not properly regulated.
• India lacks:
  • Unified, national bioremediation standards
  • Detailed site-specific contamination data
  • Strong biosafety frameworks
  • Adequately trained technical personnel

Way Forward

• Establish national bioremediation standards, certification protocols, and monitoring guidelines.
• Create regional bioremediation hubs that link researchers, industries, and local governments.
• Promote start-ups through DBT–BIRAC partnerships.
• Enhance community participation and awareness to build acceptance of microbial remediation technologies.
  

Indian Navy Commissions INS Taragiri: Advancing Project 17A Stealth Fleet

Why in the News?

The Indian Navy has inducted INS Taragiri (Yard 12653), the fourth Nilgiri-class (Project 17A) frigate and the third P17A vessel constructed by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd (MDL).

About INS Taragiri

• The ship continues the lineage of the earlier INS Taragiri, a Leander-class frigate that served the Indian Navy for 33 years (1980–2013).
• Designed by the Warship Design Bureau (WDB), the frigate has been built using the Integrated Construction Method, enabling efficient production and delivery.
• Other Project 17A ships already received by the Indian Navy include INS Nilgiri, INS Udaygiri, and INS Himgiri.

Project 17A: Key Features

• Project 17A envisions the construction of seven advanced Nilgiri-class stealth frigates, an upgraded successor to the Shivalik class.
• Shipyard Distribution:
  • MDL: Nilgiri, Udaygiri, Taragiri, Mahendragiri
  • GRSE: Himgiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri
• Ships under this project adopt integrated construction, reducing production time through pre-outfitted block stages.
• Around 75% of the systems onboard are indigenously sourced, strengthening India’s defence manufacturing ecosystem.

Operational and Combat Capabilities

Weapon Systems

• Long Range Surface to Air Missiles (LRSAM)
• BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles
• Barak-8 air defence missiles
• Lightweight anti-submarine torpedoes
• Indigenous Rocket Launcher (IRL)

Sensors & Electronic Warfare

• Multi-mission radar
• Shakti Electronic Warfare Suite
• Airborne early-warning radar
• Surface-surveillance radar
• Humsa-NG sonar

Propulsion

• Equipped with CODOG (Combined Diesel or Gas) propulsion
• Features both diesel engines and gas turbines, each linked to a Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP)
• Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS) enables efficient real-time monitoring and control of onboard systems.

Reimagining Democracy: Institutionalising Representation for Animals

Why in the News?

A growing body of political theory challenges the longstanding assumption that animals exist outside the domain of politics. Recent scholarship argues that democratic systems must evolve to include institutional mechanisms for animal representation, moving beyond anthropocentric norms that view politics as exclusively human.

Background

Modern democratic thought is built on an anthropocentric foundation—one that identifies rationality, speech, and agency as prerequisites for participation in political life.
Animals, viewed as beings lacking these attributes, are relegated to the realm of “mere life,” excluded from democratic consideration despite being deeply impacted by human decisions.
This exclusion is structural, not incidental—it forms the political basis that permits exploitation.

Re-examining this boundary is essential to expand democracy’s moral community.

The Human–Animal Divide: A Structural Boundary

• The rigid human–animal distinction collapses diverse non-human beings into a single inferior category.
• This erasure enables political institutions to treat animals as objects, property, or economic resources, with no mechanism to register their interests.
• The issue is not human compassion but institutional invisibility—animals are structurally excluded from political consideration.
• Recognising animals as sentient, heterogeneous beings establishes ethical obligations for humans, particularly in decisions regarding food systems, land use, environmental health, and public safety.

Rethinking Representation: From Rights to Fiduciary Stewardship

• Animal representation does not imply extending human-like rights such as voting.
• Instead, it requires shifting away from human-centric standards and acknowledging sentience, embodiment, and vulnerability as morally relevant criteria.
• Human abilities cannot be the benchmark for political recognition.
• A more equitable model treats humans as fiduciary stewards—trustees obligated to protect animal interests with loyalty, care, and prudence.
• Similar fiduciary structures already exist for
  • children,
  • environmental protections,
  • data subjects, and
  • future generations.
• Applying this logic to animals means creating non-majoritarian institutions authorised to participate in legislative and administrative processes.

Why Majoritarian Democracies Fail to Protect Animals

• Animals lack votes, lobbying power, and economic influence.
• Their interests are routinely overridden by economically powerful sectors relying on animal exploitation.
• Welfare interventions tend to be reactive, addressing harm after it occurs.
• Existing committees often lack autonomy and expertise, becoming vulnerable to bureaucratic inertia and industry pressure.
• Effective protection requires independent bodies with constitutional safeguards, scientific expertise, and operational autonomy.

Institutional Framework for Animal Representation

Designing Democratic Institutions

Representation must be embedded across branches of government:

Executive Level

• Advisory councils to evaluate regulatory impacts on animal welfare.

Legislative Level

• Specialised committees or expert delegates to review bills affecting animals.
• Mandatory animal-impact assessments for relevant legislation.

Administrative Level

• Agencies integrating welfare standards into routine policymaking.
• Use of scientific indicators and transparent, standardised procedures.

Structural Safeguards:

• Transparent appointments
• Fixed tenures
• Ring-fenced budgets
• Operational independence
  These measures prevent political interference or capture by vested interests.

Accountability, Transparency, and Gradual Reform

• Independent audits should measure outcomes using concrete welfare benchmarks (e.g., reduction in preventable harm).
• Transparency requires publishing decisions, data, and impact assessments for public scrutiny.
• Fiduciary bodies must consult scientists, ethicists, civil society groups, and affected communities to avoid elite capture.
• Public education strengthens democratic commitment to responsible animal stewardship.
• Reforms should begin with pilot projects such as requiring animal-impact reviews in urban planning.
• Funding may come from restructuring harmful subsidies or allocating dedicated public budgets.

23rd Law Commission’s Position on Simultaneous Elections: Constitutional Assessment

Why in the News?

The 23rd Law Commission has presented its preliminary views to the Joint Parliamentary Committee examining two Bills—the Constitution (129th Amendment) Bill, 2024, and the Union Territories Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024—both aimed at enabling One Nation One Election.

The Commission has concluded that the proposals do not violate the Constitution’s basic structure and that the Model Code of Conduct does not require statutory backing.

Background: 23rd Law Commission of India

• Law reform efforts in India began post-Independence, with the first Law Commission established in 1955.
• The 23rd Law Commission is constituted for a three-year term (1 September 2024 – 31 August 2027).
• Chairperson: Justice (Retd.) Dinesh Maheshwari.
• Composition includes:
  • Full-time Chairperson
  • Four full-time members
  • Secretaries of Legal Affairs & Legislative Department (ex-officio)
  • Up to five part-time members
• Mandate:
  • Review and repeal obsolete laws
  • Simplify legal language and procedures
  • Align laws with contemporary economic conditions
  • Advise the government on legal questions
  • Assess the impact of globalisation on vulnerable communities

Law Commission’s Observations on One Nation One Election Bills

• The Commission held that synchronising elections does not damage the Constitution’s basic structure, as the principles of federalism and voter rights remain untouched.
• It emphasised that simultaneous polls only modify the timing and frequency, not the democratic right to vote.
• The Bills do not require state ratification, since they do not amend provisions under Article 368(2) clauses (a)–(e).
• The Commission endorsed simultaneous elections for their cost-saving and efficiency benefits.

Model Code of Conduct (MCC)

• The Commission advised against granting statutory status to the MCC.
• Codification would slow administrative decision-making during elections.
• The current flexible and consensus-driven framework enables quick action by the Election Commission.

Basic Structure Doctrine of the Indian Constitution

About the Doctrine

• Originates from the landmark Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) judgment.
• Restricts Parliament from altering the core identity of the Constitution, even under Article 368.
• Elements evolve through judicial interpretation; not a closed list.
• The concept is inspired partly by the German Constitution (1949), created after WWII to prevent abuse of constitutional power.

Key Elements of the Basic Structure

• Supremacy of the Constitution
• Sovereign, democratic, republican form of government
• Secularism
• Federal character
• Rule of law
• Separation of powers
• Judicial review
• Independence of the judiciary
• Free and fair elections
• Parliamentary system
• Unity and integrity of the nation
• Primacy of Fundamental Rights
• Balance between Fundamental Rights and DPSPs
• Powers of Supreme Court (Arts. 32, 136, 141, 142) and High Courts (Arts. 226, 227)

Significance

• Preserves Constitutional Identity by safeguarding essential features.
• Checks majoritarian overreach during constitutional amendments.
• Protects Fundamental Rights from dilution.
• Strengthens judicial review and institutional accountability.
• Ensures free and fair elections, preventing manipulation of the democratic process.
• Keeps the Constitution a dynamic yet stable governing document.

One Nation, One Election: Concept and Rationale

About

• Refers to conducting Lok Sabha, State Assembly, and local body elections simultaneously.
• Recommended by a high-level committee headed by former President Ram Nath Kovind through two amendment Bills:
  • Constitution (129th Amendment) Bill, 2024
  • Union Territories Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024

Historical Context

• India held synchronised elections from 1951 to 1967.
• Divergence occurred due to premature dissolutions, political instability, and defections during the 1960s.

Why Simultaneous Elections Are Proposed

• Ensures continuity of governance by reducing perpetual election cycles.
• Minimises the frequency of MCC enforcement, preventing policy paralysis.
• Reduces administrative and logistical burden on government machinery.
• Safeguards regional issues, ensuring they are not overshadowed by national politics.
• Lessens political disruption and encourages focused governance.
• Cuts fiscal expenditure by avoiding repeated election-related costs.

Here are the FAQs added in the same pattern and format as your reference file:

Indian Classical Dances

In the Indian artistic tradition, dance is not merely a medium of expression but a vibrant form of spiritual experience, cultural continuity, and aesthetic refinement. The concept of classical dance in India is fundamentally based on the “Natya Shastra”, written by Sage Bharata Muni around the 2nd century BCE. The Natya Shastra is considered the first scientific treatise on dance, music, drama, stagecraft, and expression.

According to the Government of India (Sangeet Natak Akademi – National Academy of Performing Arts), 8 classical dances are officially recognized:

1. Bharatanatyam
2. Kuchipudi
3. Kathak
4. Kathakali
5. Mohiniyattam
6. Odissi
7. Manipuri
8. Sattriya

Fundamental Features of Classical Dance

1. Classical Scripture Base

Each classical dance form draws its theoretical foundation from:

• Natya Shastra
• Abhinaya Darpana
• Sangam literature
• Other regional classical texts

2. Integration of Nritta, Nritya, and Natya

• Nritta – Pure dance movements without any interpretative meaning
• Nritya – Expressive dance involving emotions, facial expressions, and hand gestures
• Natya – Dramatic element involving storytelling, acting, and character portrayal

3. Raga–Ragini and Tala System

Each dance form follows a structured musical tradition:

• Carnatic music (South India)
• Hindustani classical music (North India)

4. Hand Gestures (Mudras)

Mudras are based on the Natya Shastra and Abhinaya Darpana and are used to convey emotions, objects, actions, and storytelling.

5. Guru–Shishya Parampara

A deep, traditional teacher–student lineage that ensures discipline, technique, and cultural transmission.

1. Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Origin:

• Bharatanatyam developed in the Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu.
• It is associated with the Devadasi tradition, where female dancers performed in temples to worship deities and depict religious stories.
• Etymology:
  • Bha – Bhava (expression)
  • Ra – Raga (melody)
  • Ta – Tala (rhythm)
  • Natyam – Dance
  • Meaning: Bharatanatyam is the dance of expression, melody, and rhythm.

Features:

• Gestures and Style:
  • Extremely geometric, rigid, and balanced gestures.
  • Postures, expressions, and footwork are highly organized and precise.
• Main Performance Items:

1. Alarippu – Opening piece to warm up the body and prepare for the performance.
2. Jatiswaram – Technical dance piece combining rhythm and melody.
3. Varnam – The central piece featuring narrative and emotional expression.
4. Padam – Lyrical stage, where emotions and stories are acted out.
5. Tillana – Energetic concluding piece with intricate rhythmic patterns.

• Music:
  • Primarily uses Carnatic music.
• Costume and Jewelry:
  • Pleated sari arranged to accentuate body movements.
  • Intricate ankle bells (ghungroo), jewelry, crown, and waistbelt.
  • Facial and eye makeup enhances emotional expression.

Prominent Artists:

• Rukmini Devi Arundale – Popularized Bharatanatyam on the modern stage.
• Balasaraswati – Master of the traditional style, renowned dancer.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Bharatanatyam is not just a dance; it depicts Hindu religious stories, especially of Shiva and various goddesses.
• Performed in temples for worship and devotional storytelling.
• Today, it is practiced in both temple (traditional) and stage (classical) formats.

2. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Origin:

• The name Kuchipudi comes from the village Kuchelapuram/Kuchipudi in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh.
• It developed from the Bhagavata Mela tradition, where stories of Krishna and other Hindu deities were performed.
• Initially, it was mainly performed in temples and religious fairs.

Features:

• Style:
  • Kuchipudi is a dance-drama style combining dialogue (Bhava), singing, and dance (Nritya/Nritta).
  • Storytelling and acting hold greater importance compared to Bharatanatyam.
• Tarangam:
  • Dancers perform on copper plates, known as Tarangam.
  • This is the most distinctive and visually striking technique of Kuchipudi.
• Music:
  • Primarily based on Carnatic music.
• Dialogue and Acting:
  • Characters and stories are expressed through facial expressions, eye movements, and hand gestures.
  • Combination of dialogue and singing is used to narrate the story to the audience.

Prominent Artists:

• Vempati Chinna Satyam – Major artist who popularized both the traditional and modern forms of Kuchipudi on stage.
• Other traditional gurus and dancers have contributed significantly to the development and propagation of the Kuchipudi style.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Kuchipudi is not just a dance; it is a theatrical representation of Bhagavata stories.
• Brings stories of Krishna, Rama, and other deities to life for the audience.
• Today, it is extremely popular in stage performances and classical dance festivals.

3. Kathak (Northern India)

Origin:

• Kathak developed in the temples of North India from storytellers called Kathakars.
• Initially, it was performed to depict religious stories, especially from the Ramayana and Krishna’s tales.
• Later, it also developed in Mughal courts, where it became a royal entertainment and an artistic dance form.

Features:

1. Spins (Chakkars) and Technique:
   • Kathak emphasizes fast and intricate spins (Chakkars).
   • Key elements include Tihai (rhythmic patterns), Paran, Aamad, and footwork.
2. Expression (Bhava):
   • Stories are expressed through emotions, gestures, and postures.
   • Mainly portrays Ramayana and Krishna stories.
3. Music:
   • Uses Hindustani classical music.
4. Gharanas (Styles):
   • Major Kathak gharanas are:
     • Jaipur
     • Lucknow
     • Banaras
     • Raigarh

• • Each gharana has distinct style, technique, and presentation.

Prominent Artists:

• Birju Maharaj – Leading exponent of the Lucknow gharana, world-renowned Kathak dancer.
• Sitara Devi – Prominent Kathak dancer and a celebrated figure in classical dance.

Cultural and Historical Significance:

• Kathak has been an important dance form in religious, cultural, and royal settings.
• It is not just a dance, but a live medium of storytelling.
• Today, Kathak is popular in stage performances, competitions, and classical dance festivals.

4. Kathakali (Kerala)

Origin:

• Kathakali developed from the traditional Koodiyattam and Krishnanattam dance-drama forms of Kerala.
• It was established in the 17th century.
• Primarily developed to depict religious stories and epics on stage.

Features:

• Costume and Makeup:
  • Kathakali makeup is highly elaborate and colorful.
  • Main characters use green face paint (Pacha) or other colors to denote specific character types.
  • Extensive costumes and jewelry are used.
• Performance Style:
  • Kathakali is entirely drama-oriented.
  • Stories are portrayed through facial expressions (Bhava) and body gestures (Mudras).
• Music:
  • Based on traditional Kerala music.
  • Music and percussion instruments (drums, talavadyas) bring the performance to life.
• Stories:
  • Mainly from Mahabharata and Ramayana.
  • Other mythological and religious stories are also performed.

Prominent Artists:

• Kalmandalam Krishnan Nair – Renowned Kathakali dancer and expert in the style.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Kathakali is not just a dance; it is a comprehensive theatrical and religious storytelling art form.
• Holds a very important place in Kerala’s cultural heritage.
• Today, it is world-famous as a stage performance, cultural festival highlight, and tourist attraction.

5. Mohiniyattam (Kerala)

Origin:

• Mohiniyattam derives its name from “Mohini”, the female avatar of Lord Vishnu.
• Developed in Kerala and is especially known as a female-centric dance style.
• It showcases the beauty, femininity, and gentle emotions of the dancer.

Features:

• Movement Style:
  • Mohiniyattam features soft, graceful, and circular movements.
  • The dance flows slowly and gracefully, emphasizing Lasya (feminine grace).
• Costume:
  • Dancers wear white Kasavu sarees with golden borders.
  • Jewelry and adornments are simple yet elegant.
• Music:
  • Primarily based on Carnatic music.
  • Songs and music are presented according to emotion and narrative.
• Expression (Bhava) and Storytelling:
  • Mohiniyattam conveys stories and divine themes through facial expressions, gestures, and graceful movements.
  • Highlights femininity, beauty, and devotion.

Prominent Artists:

• Kalmandalam Sugandha – Leading Mohiniyattam dancer and expert of the style.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Mohiniyattam is not only a form of artistic expression but also an integral part of Kerala’s cultural and religious tradition.
• Being a female dance style, it presents an excellent blend of emotion, beauty, and Lasya.
• Today, it is popular in stage performances, classical dance festivals, and educational institutions.

6. Odissi (Odisha)

Origin:

• Odissi developed in the Jagannath Temple, Puri, Odisha.
• Initially associated with the Mahari (female temple dancers) and Gotipua (young male dancers) traditions.
• Used to depict stories of Lord Jagannath and other deities in temples.

Features:

• Posture and Body Structure:
• Tribhangi (three-bend) posture is prominent, bending the body at three points:
  1. Head
  2. Chest
  3. Waist / Hip
• This posture gives the dance fluidity and aesthetic beauty.
• Stability and Stance:
  • Dancer’s stability and coordination resemble a sculpture.
  • Chauka (Square stance) and Tribhangi (Three-bend stance) are significant elements of Odissi.
• Music and Raga:
  • Primarily based on Odia music tradition and classical ragas.
• Narrative Presentation:
  • Enacts stories from Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas.
  • Narratives are expressed through facial expressions (Bhava) and gestures (Mudras).

Prominent Gurus and Artists:

• Jahnavi Kumari Devi – Renowned for traditional Odissi style.
• Kelucharan Mahapatra – Leading guru, contributed to the development of Odissi on modern stages.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Odissi is an integral part of religious, cultural, and temple traditions.
• It presents a beautiful blend of Shringara (beauty), Bhava (expression), and Tala (rhythm).
• Today, Odissi is popular in stage performances, classical dance festivals, and national & international platforms.

7. Manipuri (Manipur)

Origin:

• Manipuri dance developed in the state of Manipur.
• Influenced by the Vaishnavite Bhakti movement.
• Raslila (the divine play of Krishna and Radha) is the foundation of Manipuri dance.
• Initially performed in temples to depict devotional and religious stories.

Features:

• Movement Style and Gestures:
  • Features very gentle, slow, and circular movements.
  • Limbs and feet move in a light, flowing, and graceful manner.
• Costume and Ornamentation:
  • Women wear Potloi (cylindrical, bell-shaped skirt).
  • Jewelry and head crowns are religious and cultural symbols.
• Music and Instruments:
  • Uses traditional instruments such as dholak, manjira, and pakhawaj.
  • Singing is primarily based on Vaishnavite devotional songs.
• Narrative Theme:
  • Main theme revolves around the leelas of Krishna and Radha.
  • During Raslila, dancers perform in a circular formation, symbolizing love and devotion.

Prominent Artists:

• Mātr̥bhūmi Devi – Leading Manipuri dancer and guardian of the style.
• Guru Bipin Singh – Contributed to the modern stage development and popularization of Manipuri dance.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Manipuri dance is a wonderful blend of devotion, beauty, and narrative performance.
• Brings Vaishnavite devotion to life through Krishna–Radha Raslila.
• Today, it is popular in stage performances, religious festivals, and national & international platforms.

8. Sattriya (Assam)

Origin:

• Sattriya dance developed in Assam.
• It was established by the great saint Srimanta Sankardev in the 15th century.
• The dance was primarily performed in Vaishnavite monasteries (Sattras) for devotional and religious storytelling, which is why it is called Sattriya.

Features:

• Performance Style:
  • Sattriya is not only a dance but also incorporates drama and music.
  • It is a narrative and devotional dance form.
• Stories and Themes:
  • Mainly based on Ramayana, Krishna–Radha Leela, and other Vaishnavite stories.
  • Expressions, gestures, and postures bring the stories to life.
• Music and Instruments:
  • Uses traditional instruments such as dhol, tala, and flute (bansuri).
  • Songs are primarily based on Vaishnavite devotional music.
• Classical Recognition:
  • In 2000, Sattriya was officially recognized as a classical Indian dance form.
  • Since then, it has gained recognition on national and international stages as a classical style.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

• Sattriya is an integral part of Assam’s cultural and religious heritage.
• Provides audiences with a devotional and spiritual experience through Bhakti, storytelling, and music.
• Today, it is popular in stage performances, classical festivals, and educational institutions.

Additional Recognized Semi-Classical Dance

Chhau Dance (Semi-Classical)

Recognized by the Ministry of Culture as a semi-classical dance combining martial, tribal, and folk elements.

Major Features

1. Styles and Regions

Three major styles:

• Purulia Chhau – West Bengal
• Seraikela Chhau – Jharkhand
• Mayurbhanj Chhau – Odisha

2. Themes

• Martial movements, acrobatics, and vigorous choreography
• Themes from Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism
• Stories from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas

3. Masks and Costumes

• Masks used prominently in Purulia and Seraikela styles
• Mayurbhanj Chhau uses no masks
• Vibrant costumes, warrior-like energy

4. Social Aspects

• Traditionally performed by male dancers
• Major performances occur during spring festivals
• Blends classical traditions with tribal culture
• Unites communities through ritual and celebration